Linux people like to claim that directories are really just another type of file. This statement can be misleading. We saw in a previous article that you create a file using a file editor. We will see later in this article how to create a directory.

So just what is a Linux directory? A directory is a collection that may include one or more directories, one or more files, or in fact be empty. You may think of a directory as a computerized file folder or loose-leaf notebook that contains dividers (themselves directories) and pages (files.) Just like a notebook page may not contain a divider, a Linux file may not contain a directory.

Up to now our comments about Linux directories hold for Windows directories as well. Now let’s take a look at some differences between these two systems. First come the naming conventions. Linux always distinguishes between lower-case and upper-case characters in directory names. Microsoft Windows does not. For example, Linux treats pay12june and Pay12june are as two different directories, as different as the directories pay12june and heighho. These directory names were used as file names in the previous article. While Linux does have some reserved directory and file names, in general one cannot tell by the name whether it is a file name or a directory name. So be careful. Linux helps you out here ‘ the ls command that lists the contents of a given directory usually displays files and directories in different colors.

Directories are hierarchical. They resemble a tree or a family tree. But unlike a tree (or Microsoft Windows) Linux has only one root. The root, designated as / lies at the top, rather than at the bottom, of the hierarchy. Right underneath the root directory you will find several subdirectories. For example, the /home directory is a child of / the root directory. The number and names of the first-level subdirectories vary from one version of Linux to another. For example, some Linux distributions include a /root directory while others do not. The /root directory (or subdirectory, both terms are used) is a child of /, the actual root directory.

The /home directory is an important directory. It is divided into subdirectories, one for each user. We like to work with Damn Small Linux, a free version of Linux that runs on the Windows desktop and requires only 50 Megabytes of disk space. Damn Small Linux automatically creates a user called dsl whose home directory is /home/dsl ; a working area essentially reserved for this user. All Linux versions subdivide the /home directory into user subdirectories according to this simple naming convention.

Linux provides several commands to process directories. For example, the mkdir command creates a directory. The rmdir command removes a directory, but in the simplest case only when it is empty. The cd command changes the working directory, the directory in which you are positioned. The pwd (print working directory) command displays (not prints) the working directory. Beginners should run this command often to reduce errors. For example, if you, the dsl user, think that you are positioned in the /home/dsl directory but in fact are positioned in the / directory you won’t be able save your files with a simple command. Why? Because you lack the requisite permission, the subject of our next article.

By: Levi Reiss

Most people purchase computers to run programs – whether it is to send email, browse the web, meet friends of girlfriends on msn messenger, do office work or just play solitaire.

People buy computers to use programs for their functionality not to run operating systems be in Microsoft Windows, the new Microsoft Vista product , the Mac Operations Systems or the various Linux Operating Systems – be they Ubuntu Linux , Mandiva , Knoppix or Debian.

At the heart of most computer users is functionality and usability. It is as simple as that. It is an interesting situation that the Microsoft Corporation controls the vast lion’s share of the computer operating system market. Indeed it even has a major share holding of the next player in line – Apple with the Macintosh OS (Operating System).

What are the issues?

1) Linux is not really free. Linux, in its various flavors or distros, is given free of charge, whether it is on a cd, DVD or downloaded. You can install the program on your own compute or various computers , at no charge to yourself whatsoever

This is in direct contrast to a commercial product such as Microsoft Windows or the new Microsoft Vista which you to purchase a boxed version or a valid license which comes with most computer systems purchased. This license which comes on most new computers as a matter of course could be referred to as the “Microsoft Computer Tax” and is not an option you can forego, to reduce the purchase of your new compute – whether or not you wish to use another operating system such as Linux.

Linux is given free of charge to install. This is not a shareware or time limited version of the product which requires a registration fee after a period of time.

If you require product support or training commercial organizations do exist which will charge you for support of that product or for training or both. Indeed it can be said that Microsoft itself charges for product support, Symantec the antivirus / security organization charges for basic support by product, subscription fees – sometimes automatic subscription fees and 900 phone number and charge card “Priority Support”.

Indeed you would not expect your local school or technical college to provide computer and compute software training free of charge.

2) Linux is complex and will force you to learn the Linux command line,

Not true simple as that. The various Linux distros all have GUI (Graphic User Interfaces) just like Microsoft Windows, Windows used to come as command line DOS. Windows users use pull down windows to operate the software. So can and do most Linux users

3) Compared to Windows , Installing Linux is Difficult

- The vast majority of computer users are computer neophytes and beginners.

These computer users purchase computers with the operations system Microsoft Windows or the Macintosh Operating System installed on their new computers. These people could not install the Windows Operating system and the device drivers necessary if their life depended on it. How the situation of a Linux is based computer any different.

It is only a matter of time until new computers come preinstalled with the Linux operating system. Imagine if Henry Ford had been told not to build new cars since there were few good roads available in America.

4) My Computer Hardware Just Works Under Windows

5) Again untrue in many cases and soon to be less of an issue as more and more computers will come preinstalled with a Linux operating system. Already Dell Computer (which was a Microsoft stalwart) is selling Linux based laptops. Interestingly the response to the Ubuntu Linux dell notebooks is quite positive, If you think Linux hardware compatibility is an issue try upgrading to the new Microsoft Vista from your previous Microsoft Windows product. You will find to your surprise that few if little of computer hardware are supported. You may have upgraded to the new Vista and found you have either no sound, good video or even internet connections via your network adapter device or wireless network adapter. And try undoing your upgrade to get back to your working windows version – it cannot be done.

Lastly you may say I run Windows since all of the programs I use are available only on the Windows operations system – since that is the dominant player in the market. You may well surmise that since Windows is the more than dominant player in the computer OS market that software developers write their product almost exclusively for the windows operations system and that market.

This is true. If you are using a specialized product for your job, industry, situation or preference you may well be locked in.

In the end most people buy and use computers for functionality and use. Most people use their computers for internet browsing , communication – whether it by email or messenger services (M.S.N. , Yahoo , Skype , Eyeball Chat) , downloading and burning music and in more than many cases for playing nothing more than computer games such as simple solitaire.

In these cases the functionality of Linux and its program base easily allows for this. Indeed many of the cutting edge programs and computer services come out of left field by computer software developers and enthusiasts whose preference of Computer Operating System is guess what – Linux in its various forms.

By: Maxwell A. Rubin

Almost everyone is familiar with Microsoft Windows, as it is installed on the computers of many home-based users. While it is certainly the most popular, Windows isn’t the only operating system available. There are several other choices, including Mac OS X, Solaris and Linux.

The Linux operating system comes in many different variations. Some of the most popular versionsinclude Debian, Fedora and Redhat among others. Just like any other operating system, Linux comes with a number of device drivers. This means that there may be a time when hardware devices on your computer stop working properly and require driver updates. Although a device could experience problems for various reasons, an outdated or dysfunctional driver is usually the culprit.

Where to Begin Updating Linux Device Drivers

In order to update the drivers for your Linux hardware, you must find out what type of device it is. Once you have these details, go online and head to the manufacturer’s website. Although mainly used in the network setting, Linux is becoming more popular as a desktop system, making it easier to find device drivers. Most hardware device manufacturers allow you to download device drivers from the support section of their websites. Regardless of the manufacturer, it is important to download drivers that are specific to the Linux operating system. If you download and install Windows drivers, your hardware will not work on your Linux system.

Because Linux is an open-source system, many of its device drivers are available in open-source variations. The open-source nature allows any developer to create device drivers and freely distribute them. These drivers can typically be downloaded from various open-source communities online. With proprietary software and hardware components, you are required to download the device drivers from the manufacturer.

How to Install Linux Device Drivers

Device drivers for the Linux operating system are usually distributed as source code in zip archives. This calls for you to unzip the compressed archive to access the appropriate files. In order to accomplish this, you must use a compatible unzip application and manually compile the source code. While Linux is generally more complex, this task can be easily completed by basic computer users.

Ensuring Compatibility Before a New Purchase

If you plan to add a new hardware device to your Linux computer, it is important to make sure it is compatible with the operating system before making a purchase. This can be done in two ways: you can either check with the manufacturer or visit the KeyLabs website. KeyLabs is an organization that tests numerous applications and devices to determine their compatibility with various systems, Linux included. This company has tested so many hardware devices that gathering information from KeyLabs is often easier than getting it from the manufacturer’s website.

Even though Linux is becoming more accepted as a desktop system, finding the right device drivers can still be a tedious undertaking. This is especially true if you are trying to integrate hardware devices that were previously used on an older Linux system. As you would expect, the process is much easier when dealing with new hardware devices, as they typically come included with installation discs that contain the appropriate drivers.

By: Adam K Smith